Which of the Following Does Not Describe Important Features of Indian Art

Art from Indian Subcontinent cultures

From the depiction of Hindu gods, and other mythological characters, the Kalighat painting reflects a variety of subjects, including many depictions of everyday life.

Indian fine art consists of a diversity of art forms, including painting, sculpture, pottery, and textile arts such as woven silk. Geographically, information technology spans the entire Indian subcontinent, including what is at present Bharat, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and at times eastern Afghanistan. A potent sense of blueprint is feature of Indian art and tin exist observed in its modern and traditional forms.

The origin of Indian art can be traced to prehistoric settlements in the 3rd millennium BC. On its style to modern times, Indian fine art has had cultural influences, also as religious influences such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and Islam. In spite of this complex mixture of religious traditions, more often than not, the prevailing artistic style at whatsoever time and place has been shared past the major religious groups.

In celebrated art, sculpture in stone and metal, mainly religious, has survived the Indian climate better than other media and provides most of the best remains. Many of the almost important aboriginal finds that are not in carved stone come from the surrounding, drier regions rather than Republic of india itself. Indian funeral and philosophic traditions exclude grave goods, which is the master source of ancient art in other cultures.

Indian artist styles historically followed Indian religions out of the subcontinent, having an especially big influence in Tibet, Southward East asia and China. Indian art has itself received influences at times, especially from Central Asia and Iran, and Europe.

Early Indian art [edit]

Rock art [edit]

Rock painting at one of the Bhimbetka rock shelters.

Prehistoric petroglyphs in the Edakkal Caves, Wayanad

Rock art of Bharat includes rock relief carvings, engravings and paintings, some (but by no means all) from the Due south Asian Stone Age. It is estimated there are nearly 1300 stone art sites with over a quarter of a meg figures and figurines.^[ane] The earliest rock carvings in India were discovered by Archibald Carlleyle, twelve years earlier the Cavern of Altamira in Spain,^[2] although his piece of work simply came to light much later on via J Cockburn (1899).^[3]

Dr. V. S. Wakankar discovered several painted stone shelters in Central Republic of india, situated around the Vindhya mountain range. Of these, the c. 750 sites making up the Bhimbetka rock shelters have been enrolled as a UNESCO World Heritage Site; the primeval paintings are some 10,000 years erstwhile.^{[4] [five] [6] [vii] [8]} The paintings in these sites usually depicted scenes of human life aslope animals, and hunts with stone implements. Their style varied with region and historic period, but the most mutual feature was a red launder fabricated using a powdered mineral called geru, which is a class of Iron Oxide (Hematite).^[9]

Indus Valley Civilization (c.  3300 BC – c. 1750 BC) [edit]

Despite its widespread and sophistication, the Indus Valley civilization seems to take taken no interest in public large-scale art, different many other early on civilizations. A number of gilt, terra cotta and rock figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some forms of dance. Additionally, the terracotta figurines included cows, bears, monkeys, and dogs.

Much the most common form of figurative art constitute is modest carved seals. Thousands of steatite seals have been recovered, and their physical character is fairly consistent. In size they range from 3⁄4 inch to 1 1⁄2 inches foursquare. In almost cases they have a pierced dominate at the dorsum to adapt a cord for handling or for use every bit personal beautification. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-Daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and another, on the Pashupati Seal, sitting cross-legged in a yoga-like pose. This figure has been variously identified. Sir John Marshall identified a resemblance to the Hindu god, Shiva.^[ten]

The animal depicted on a majority of seals at sites of the mature menstruation has not been clearly identified. Part bull, role zebra, with a imperial horn, it has been a source of speculation. Equally yet, at that place is insufficient evidence to substantiate claims that the epitome had religious or cultist significance, just the prevalence of the image raises the question of whether or non the animals in images of the IVC are religious symbols.^[xi] The most famous piece is the bronze Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro, which shows remarkably avant-garde modelling of the homo figure for this early date.^[12]

Afterward the end of the Is Valley Civilisation, at that place is a surprising absenteeism of art of any great degree of composure until the Buddhist era. Information technology is thought that this partly reflects the use of perishable organic materials such as wood.^[thirteen]

Vedic period [edit]

The millennium following the plummet of the Indus Valley Civilisation, coinciding with the Indo-Aryan migration during the Vedic period, is devoid of anthropomorphical depictions.^[14] It has been suggested that the early Vedic faith focused exclusively on the worship of purely "unproblematic forces of nature past means of elaborate sacrifices", which did not lend themselves easily to anthropomorphological representations.^{[15] [16]} Diverse artefacts may belong to the Copper Hoard Culture (2d millennium BCE), some of them suggesting anthropomorphological characteristics.^[17] Interpretations vary as to the exact signification of these artifacts, or even the culture and the periodization to which they belonged.^[17] Some examples of artistic expression also appear in abstruse pottery designs during the Black and red ware culture (1450-1200 BCE) or the Painted Greyness Ware civilisation (1200-600 BCE), with finds in a broad area, including the area of Mathura.^[17]

After a gap of nearly a thousand years, most of the early finds correspond to what is chosen the "2nd period of urbanization" in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE.^[17] The anthropomorphic depiction of diverse deities obviously started in the center of the 1st millennium BCE, possibly as a issue of the influx of foreign stimuli initiated with the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley, and the rise of alternative local faiths challenging Vedism, such as Buddhism, Jainism and local pop cults.^[14]

Mauryan art (c.  322 BCE – c. 185 BCE) [edit]

The n Indian Maurya Empire flourished from 322 BCE to 185 BCE, and at its maximum extent controlled all of the sub-continent except the extreme south as well as influences from Indian ancient traditions, and Ancient Persia,^[xviii] as shown past the Pataliputra upper-case letter.

The emperor Ashoka, who died in 232 BCE, adopted Buddhism about half-way through his 40-yr reign, and patronized several large stupas at primal sites from the life of the Buddha, although very lilliputian decoration from the Mauryan flow survives, and there may not take been much in the starting time place. There is more from diverse early sites of Indian rock-cut compages.

The well-nigh famous survivals are the large animals surmounting several of the Pillars of Ashoka, which showed a confident and boldly mature style and craft and commencement of its kind atomic number 26 casting without rust until engagement, which was in use by vedic people in rural areas of the state, though we have very few remains showing its development.^[19] The famous detached Panthera leo Capital of Ashoka, with four animals, was adopted as the official Emblem of India later Indian independence.^[20] Mauryan sculpture and architecture is characterized by a very fine Mauryan polish given to the stone, which is rarely found in subsequently periods.

Many small popular terra cotta figurines are recovered in archeology, in a range of often vigorous if somewhat rough styles. Both animals and human figures, ordinarily females presumed to be deities, are found.^[21]

Colossal Yaksha bronze (2nd century BCE) [edit]

Yakshas seem to have been the object of an important cult in the early periods of Indian history, many of them being known such equally Kubera, king of the Yakshas, Manibhadra or Mudgarpani.^[23] The Yakshas are a broad class of nature-spirits, normally benevolent, but sometimes mischievous or capricious, continued with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and wilderness,^{[24] [25]} and were the object of popular worship.^[26] Many of them were later on incorporated into Buddhism, Jainism or Hinduism.^[23]

In the 2nd century BCE, Yakshas became the focus of the creation of colossal cultic images, typically effectually 2 meters or more in meridian, which are considered as probably the starting time Indian anthropomorphic productions in stone.^{[27] [23]} Although few ancient Yaksha statues remain in good condition, the vigor of the way has been applauded, and expresses substantially Indian qualities.^[27] They are often pot-bellied, two-armed and violent-looking.^[23] The Yashas are ofttimes depicted with weapons or attributes, such as the Yaksha Mudgarpani who in the right hand holds a mudgar mace, and in the left hand the figure of a small standing devotee or kid joining hands in prayer.^{[28] [23]} It is often suggested that the style of the colossal Yaksha statuary had an important influence on the cosmos of later divine images and homo figures in India.^[29] The female person equivalent of the Yashas were the Yashinis, often associated with trees and children, and whose voluptuous figures became omnipresent in Indian art.^[23]

Some Hellenistic influence, such as the geometrical folds of the drape or the walking opinion of the statues, has been suggested.^[27] According to John Boardman, the hem of the dress in the monumental early Yaksha statues is derived from Greek art.^[27] Describing the drapery of ane of these statues, John Boardman writes: "Information technology has no local antecedents and looks almost like a Greek Late Archaic mannerism", and suggests information technology is possibly derived from the Hellenistic art of nearby Bactria where this pattern is known.^[27]

In the production of colossal Yaksha statues carved in the round, which can be found in several locations in northern Republic of india, the fine art of Mathura is considered as the about advanced in quality and quantity during this catamenia.^[xxx]

Buddhist fine art (c.  150 BCE – c. 500 CE) [edit]

Crossbar medallion with elephant and riders, Mathura fine art, circa 150 BCE.^[31]

The major survivals of Buddhist art begin in the flow after the Mauryans, from which practiced quantities of sculpture survives. Some cardinal sites are Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati, some of which remain in situ, with others in museums in India or effectually the world. Stupas were surrounded by ceremonial fences with four profusely carved toranas or ornamental gateways facing the cardinal directions. These are in stone, though clearly adopting forms adult in woods. They and the walls of the stupa itself can be heavily busy with reliefs, mostly illustrating the lives of the Buddha. Gradually life-size figures were sculpted, initially in deep relief, just and then gratuitous-standing.^[32] Mathura was the most important eye in this evolution, which practical to Hindu and Jain art also as Buddhist.^[33] The facades and interiors of rock-cutting chaitya prayer halls and monastic viharas have survived better than similar free-standing structures elsewhere, which were for long by and large in wood. The caves at Ajanta, Karle, Bhaja and elsewhere contain early sculpture, frequently outnumbered by later works such as iconic figures of the Buddha and bodhisattvas, which are not found before 100 CE at the least.

Buddhism developed an increasing emphasis on statues of the Buddha, which was greatly influenced by Hindu and Jain religious figurative art, The figures of this catamenia which were also influenced past the Greco-Buddhist art of the centuries later the conquests of Alexander the Keen. This fusion developed in the far north-west of India, peculiarly Gandhara in modern Afghanistan and Islamic republic of pakistan.^[34] The Indian Kushan Empire spread from Key Asia to include northern Republic of india in the early centuries CE, and briefly commissioned big statues that were portraits of the royal dynasty.^[35]

Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 72 BCE) [edit]

The Peachy Stupa at Sanchi, c. 273 BCE – 232 BCE (Mauryan Empire), enlarged c. 150 BCE – fifty BCE (Shunga Dynasty)

With the fall of the Maurya Empire, command of India was returned to the older custom of regional dynasties, i of the most significant of which was the Shunga Dynasty (c. 185 BCE – 72 BCE) of cardinal Bharat. During this menstruation, as well every bit during the Satavahana Dynasty which occurred concurrently with the Shunga Dynasty in south India, some of the most meaning early on Buddhist architecture was created. Arguably, the most meaning architecture of this dynasty is the stupa, a religious monument which usually holds a sacred relic of Buddhism. These relics were frequently, but non e'er, in some way directly continued to the Buddha. Due to the fact that these stupas contained remains of the Buddha himself, each stupa was venerated as beingness an extension of the Buddha's body, his enlightenment, and of his achievement of nirvana. The fashion in which Buddhists venerate the stupa is by walking effectually it in a clockwise way.^[36]

A monumental rock-cut cave, the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves, built circa 120 CE

I of the most notable examples of the Buddhist stupa from the Shunga Dynasty is The Smashing Stupa at Sanchi, which was idea to be founded by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka c. 273 BCE – 232 BCE during the Maurya Empire.^[37] The Great Stupa was enlarged to its present diameter of 120 feet, covered with a stone casing, topped with a balustrade and umbrella, and encircled with a stone railing during the Shunga Dynasty c. 150 BCE - 50 BCE.

In addition to architecture, some other significant art form of the Shunga Dynasty is the elaborately moulded terracotta plaques. As seen in previous examples from the Mauryan Empire, a style in which surface detail, nudity, and sensuality is continued in the terracotta plaques of the Shunga Dynasty. The nigh common figural representations seen on these plaques are women, some of which are thought to be goddesses, who are mostly shown every bit bare-chested and wearing elaborate headdresses.^[38]

Satavahana dynasty (c. 1st/3rd century BCE – c. 3rd century CE) [edit]

The Satavahana dynasty ruled in central Bharat, and sponsored many large Buddhist monuments, stupas, temples, and prayer-halls, including the Amaravati Stupa, the Karla Caves, and the first phase of the Ajanta Caves.^[39]

Stupas are religious monuments built on burial mounds, which contain relics beneath a solid dome. Stupas in unlike areas of India may vary in structure, size, and design; notwithstanding, their representational meanings are quite similar. They are designed based on a mandala, a graph of cosmos specific to Buddhism. A traditional stupa has a railing that provides a sacred path for Buddhist followers to exercise devotional circumambulation in ritual settings. Also, aboriginal Indians considered caves as sacred places since they were inhabited by holy men and monks. A chaitya was synthetic from a cavern.^[36]

Relief sculptures of Buddhist figures and epigraphs written in Brahmi characters are often found in divine places specific to Buddhism.^[40] To gloat the divine, Satavahana people as well made stone images as the ornamentation in Buddhist architectures. Based on the knowledge of geometry and geology, they created ideal images using a set of complex techniques and tools such every bit chisels, hammers, and compasses with iron points.^[41]

In addition, delicate Satavahana coins show the capacity of creating art in that period. The Satavahanas issued coins primarily in copper, atomic number 82 and potin. Afterwards, silver came into use when producing coins. The coins unremarkably have detailed portraits of rulers and inscriptions written in the linguistic communication of Tamil and Telugu.^[40]

Kushan Empire (c. 30 CE - c. 375 CE) [edit]

Officially established by Kujula Kadphises, the first Kushan emperor who united the Yuezhi tribes, the Kushan empire was a syncretic empire in central and southern Asia, including the regions of Gandhara and Mathura in northern India. From 127 to 151 CE, Gandharan reached its summit under the reign of Kanishka the Great. In this period, Kushan art inherited the Greco-Buddhist fine art.^[42] Mahayana Buddhism flourished, and the depictions of Buddha as a human being grade offset appeared in fine art. Wearing a monk's robe and a long length of cloth draped over the left shoulder and effectually the body, the Buddha was depicted with 32 major lakshanas (distinguishing marks), including a aureate-colored trunk, an ushnisha (a protuberance) on the top of his caput, heavy earrings, elongated earlobes, long arms, the impression of a chakra (wheel) on the palms of his easily and the soles of his feet, and the urna (a mark between his eyebrows).^[36] One of the hallmarks of Gandharan art is its relation to naturalism of Hellenistic art. The naturalistic features found in Gandharan sculptures include the 3-dimensional handling of the drape, with unregularized folds that are in realistic patterns of random shape and thickness. The physical class of the Buddha and his bodhisattvas are well-defined, solid, and muscular, with swelling chests, artillery, and abdomens.^[43] Buddhism and Buddhism art spread to Primal Asia and the far Eastward beyond Bactria and Sogdia, where the Kushan Empire met the Han Dynasty of China.^[44]

Gupta art (c.  320 CE – c. 550 CE) [edit]

The Gupta period is more often than not regarded as a archetype peak of north Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, and survives in the Ajanta Caves, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture.

The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved rock deity in Hindu art, likewise as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, these final often on a very large scale. The main centres of sculpture were Mathura Sarnath, and Gandhara, the terminal the center of Greco-Buddhist fine art.

The Gupta flow marked the "gold historic period" of classical Hinduism,^[45] and saw the primeval constructed Hindu temple architecture, though survivals are non numerous.

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  Ajanta Caves Fresco

Center kingdoms and the Late Medieval period (c.  600 CE – c. 1300 CE) [edit]

Over this period Hindu temple architecture matured into a number of regional styles, and a large proportion of the art historical tape for this period consists of temple sculpture, much of which remains in place. The political history of the middle kingdoms of India saw India divided into many states, and since much of the grandest building was commissioned by rulers and their court, this helped the development of regional differences. Painting, both on a big scale on walls, and in miniature forms, was no doubt very widely practiced, but survivals are rare. Medieval bronzes have most unremarkably survived from either the Tamil south, or the Himalayan foothills.

Dynasties of Southward India (c.  tertiary century CE – c. 1300 CE) [edit]

Inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka mention coexistence of the northern kingdoms with the triumvirate of Chola, Chera and Pandya Tamil dynasties, situated south of the Vindhya mountains.^[46] The medieval catamenia witnessed the ascent and fall of these kingdoms, in conjunction with other kingdoms in the expanse. It is during the refuse and resurgence of these kingdoms that Hinduism was renewed. Information technology fostered the structure of numerous temples and sculptures.

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  Youth in lotus pond, ceiling fresco at Sittanvasal, 850 CE

The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram constructed by the Pallavas symbolizes early Hindu architecture, with its monolithic rock relief and sculptures of Hindu deities. They were succeeded by Chola rulers who were prolific in their pursuit of the arts. The Groovy Living Chola Temples of this period are known for their maturity, grandeur and attention to detail, and accept been recognized as a UNESCO Heritage Site.^[47] The Chola menstruation is also known for its bronze sculptures, the lost-wax casting technique and fresco paintings. Thanks to the Hindu kings of the Chalukya dynasty, Jainism flourished alongside Islam evidenced by the fourth of the Badami cave temples being Jain instead of Vedic. The kingdoms of South India continued to dominion their lands until the Muslim invasions that established sultanates in that location and destroyed much of the temples and marvel examples of architectures and sculptures

Temples of Khajuraho (c.  800 CE – c. m CE) [edit]

Recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site,^[48] the Khajuraho group of monuments were constructed by the Chandela association of the Rajput dynasties. Apart from the usual Hindu temples, ten% of the sculptures draw twisted bodies of men and women that shed light on the everyday socio-cultural and religious practices in Medieval India. Ever since their discovery, the caste of sexuality depicted in these sculptures has drawn both negative and positive criticism from scholars.^{[49] [50] [ need quotation to verify ]}

The Khajuraho temples were in active use under Hindu kingdoms, until the establishment of the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century. Under Muslim dominion until the 18th century, many of Khajuraho's monuments were destroyed, but a few ruins still remain.

Deccan [edit]

Other Hindu states are at present mainly known through their surviving temples and their attached sculpture. These include Badami Chalukya architecture (5th to 6th centuries), Western Chalukya compages (11th to twelfth centuries) and Hoysala compages (11th to 14th centuries), all centred on modern Karnataka.

Eastern Bharat [edit]

In eastward India, Odisha and West Bengal, Kalinga architecture was the broad temple style, with local variants, before the Muslim conquest.

In antiquity, Bengal was a pioneer of painting in Asia under the Pala Empire. Miniature and scroll painting flourished during the Mughal Empire. Kalighat painting or Kalighat Pat originated in the 19th century Bengal, in the vicinity of Kalighat Kali Temple of Kolkata, and from being items of gift taken by the visitors to the Kali temple, the paintings over a period of fourth dimension developed equally a distinct school of Indian painting. From the depiction of Hindu gods other mythological characters, the Kalighat paintings adult to reverberate a variety of themes.

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  Rasmancha, Bishnupur. Built by Rex Bir Hambir, the temple has an unusual elongated pyramidical tower, surrounded by hut-shaped turrets, which were very typical of Bengali roof structures of the time.

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Early Modernistic and Colonial Era (c.  1400 CE – c. 1800 CE) [edit]

Mughal fine art [edit]

Although Islamic conquests in India were fabricated equally early every bit the beginning one-half of the 10th century, it wasn't until the Mughal Empire that one observes emperors with a patronage for the fine arts. Emperor Humayun, during his reestablishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1555, brought with him Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad, two of the finest painters from Persian Shah Tahmasp'due south renowned atelier.

During the reign of Akbar (1556—1605), the number of painters grew from effectually thirty during the creation of the Hamzanama in the mid-1560s, to effectually 130 by the mid 1590s.^[51] According to court historian Abu'l-Fazal, Akbar was hands-on in his interest of the arts, inspecting his painters regularly and rewarding the all-time.^[52] It is during this time that Persian artists were attracted to bringing their unique style to the empire. Indian elements were present in their works from the showtime, with the incorporation of local Indian flora and creature that were otherwise absent from the traditional Farsi style. The paintings of this time reflected the vibrancy and inclusion of Akbar'south kingdom, with product of Persian miniatures, the Rajput paintings (including the Kangra school) and the Pahari way of Northern Bharat. They also influenced the Visitor fashion watercolor paintings created during the British rule many years later.

Mughal art of Northern India (pre-1600) and its influences

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  Arghan Div Brings the Chest of Armor to Hamza, from Volume 7 of the Hamzanama, supervised by Samad, ca. 1562—1577. Opaque watercolor and gilt on cotton.

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  Krishna playing flute, ca. 1790—1800, Guler/Kangra region. Opaque watercolor and gold on paper.

With the expiry of Akbar, his son Jahangir (1605–1627) took the throne. He preferred each painter work on a unmarried piece rather than the collaboration fostered during Akbar's time. This period marks the emergence of distinct individual styles, notably Bishan Das, Manohar Das, Abu al-Hasan, Govardhan, and Daulat.^[53] Jahangir himself had the capability to identify the work of each private artist, even if the work was unnamed. The Razmnama (Farsi translation of the Hindu epic Mahabharata) and an illustrated memoir of Jahangir, named Tuzuk-i Jahangiri, were created nether his rule. Jahangir was succeeded by Shah Jahan (1628–1658), whose well-nigh notable architectural contribution is the Taj Mahal. Paintings under his rule were more than formal, featuring courtroom scenes, in contrast to the personal styles from his predecessor'south fourth dimension. Aurangzeb (1658–1707), who held increasingly orthodox Sunni beliefs, forcibly took the throne from his begetter Shah Jahan. With a ban of music and painting in 1680, his reign saw the decline of Mughal patronage of the arts.

As painting declined in the regal court, artists and the general influence of Mughal painting spread to the princely courts and cities of north Republic of india, where both portraiture, the analogy of the Indian epics, and Hindu religious painting developed in many local schools and styles. Notable among these were the schools of Rajput, Pahari, Deccan, Kangra painting.

Mughal art of Northern India (mail-1600)

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  Jahangir in Darbar, from the Jahangir-nama, c. 1620. Gouache on newspaper.

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  Portrait of the emperor Shah Jahan, enthroned. ca. 17th century.

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  A durbar scene with the newly crowned Emperor Aurangzeb.

Other medieval Indian kingdoms [edit]

The last empire in southern India has left spectacular remains of Vijayanagara architecture, particularly at Hampi, Karnataka, oftentimes heavily decorated with sculpture. These developed the Chola tradition. After the Mughal conquest, the temple tradition continued to develop, mainly in the expansion of existing temples, which added new outer walls with increasingly large gopurams, often dwarfing the older buildings in the centre. These became unremarkably thickly covered with plaster statues of deities and other religious figures, which need have their brightly-coloured paint kept renewed at intervals and then they do not erode away.

In Due south-Cardinal Bharat, during the tardily fifteenth century after the Middle kingdoms, the Bahmani sultanate disintegrated into the Deccan sultanates centered at Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Berar. They used vedic techniques of metal casting, stone carving, and painting, every bit well equally a distinctive architectural style with the addition of citadels and tombs from Mughal architecture. For instance, the Baridi dynasty (1504–1619) of Bidar saw the invention of bidri ware, which was adopted from Vedic and Maurya period ashoka pillars of zinc mixed with copper, tin, and lead and inlaid with silver or brass, then covered with a mud paste containing sal ammoniac, which turned the base metallic blackness, highlighting the colour and sheen of the inlaid metal. Only afterward the Mughal conquest of Ahmadnagar in 1600 did the Western farsi influence patronized by the Turco-Mongol Mughals begin to impact Deccan art.

Deccan fine art of Due south-Central India

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  Portrait of Abu'fifty Hasan, the terminal Sultan of Golconda, c. tardily 17th—early 18th century

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  Chand Bibi hawking, an 18th-century Deccan painting, gouache heightened with gold on paper

British menstruum (1841–1947) [edit]

British colonial rule had a dandy bear upon on Indian art, especially from the mid-19th century onwards. Many old patrons of art became less wealthy and influential, and Western art more ubiquitous every bit the British Empire established schools of art in major cities. The oldest, the Government College of Fine Arts, Chennai, was established in 1850. In major cities with many Europeans, the Company mode of small paintings became mutual, created by Indian artists working for European patrons of the East Republic of india Company. The style mainly used watercolour, to convey soft textures and tones, in a style combining influences from Western prints and Mughal painting.^[54] By 1858, the British government took over the task of administration of India under the British Raj. Many commissions by Indian princes were at present wholly or partly in Western styles, or the hybrid Indo-Saracenic compages. The fusion of Indian traditions with European mode at this fourth dimension is evident from Raja Ravi Varma's oil paintings of sari-clad women in a graceful manner.

Pre-independence Indian art

Bengal School of Fine art [edit]

The Bengal Schoolhouse of Art normally referred as Bengal School, was an art movement and a style of Indian painting that originated in Bengal, primarily Kolkata and Shantiniketan, and flourished throughout the Indian subcontinent, during the British Raj in the early 20th century. Also known as 'Indian way of painting' in its early on days, information technology was associated with Indian nationalism (swadeshi) and led by Abanindranath Tagore (1871-1951), simply was as well promoted and supported by British arts administrators like E. B. Havell, the primary of the Regime College of Fine art and Craft, Kolkata from 1896; somewhen it led to the development of the mod Indian painting.

Tagore afterward attempted to develop links with Japanese artists as role of an aspiration to construct a pan-Asianist model of fine art. Through the paintings of 'India Mata', Abanindranath established the blueprint of patriotism. Painters and artists of Bengal school were Nandalal Bose, Thousand.A.R Chughtai, Sunayani Devi (sis of Abanindranath Tagore), Manishi Dey, Mukul Dey, Kalipada Ghoshal, Asit Kumar Haldar, Sudhir Khastgir, Kshitindranath Majumdar, Sughra Rababi.

Between 1920 and 1925, Gaganendranath pioneered experiments in modernist painting. Partha Mitter describes him as "the only Indian painter earlier the 1940s who made apply of the language and syntax of Cubism in his painting". From 1925 onwards, the artist developed a complex post-cubist manner.

With the Swadeshi Movement gaining momentum by 1905, Indian artists attempted to resuscitate the cultural identities suppressed past the British, rejecting the Romanticized style of the Company paintings and the mannered piece of work of Raja Ravi Varma and his followers. Thus was created what is known today as the Bengal School of Art, led past the reworked Asian styles (with an emphasis on Indian nationalism) of Abanindranath Tagore (1871—1951), who has been referred to as the father of Modern Indian art.^[55] Other artists of the Tagore family, such every bit Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) and Gaganendranath Tagore (1867–1938) as well as new artists of the early on 20th century such as Amrita Sher-Gil (1913–1941) were responsible for introducing Avant-garde western styles into Indian Art. Many other artists like Jamini Roy and later S.H. Raza took inspiration from folk traditions. In 1944, Thousand.C.S. Paniker founded the Progressive Painters' Association (PPA) thus giving rise to the "madras movement" in art.^[56]

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  Journey's Terminate past Abanindranath Tagore.

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  Two cats holding a large prawn by Jamini Roy.

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  Pratima Visarjan past Gaganendranath Tagore.

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  Gaganendranath Tagore - Meeting at the Staircase.

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  Fresco by Nandalal Bose in Dinantika - Ashram Complex - Santiniketan.

Gimmicky art (c.  1900 CE-present) [edit]

In 1947, India became independent of British rule. A group of vi artists - K. H. Ara, S. K. Bakre, H. A. Gade, G.F. Husain, S.H. Raza and Francis Newton Souza - founded the Mumbai Progressive Artists' Group in the year 1952, to establish new ways of expressing Bharat in the mail service-colonial era. Though the group was dissolved in 1956, information technology was profoundly influential in changing the idiom of Indian fine art. Most all India's major artists in the 1950s were associated with the group. Some of those who are well-known today are Bal Chabda, Manishi Dey, V. S. Gaitonde, Krishen Khanna, Ram Kumar, Tyeb Mehta, K. One thousand. Subramanyan, A. Ramachandran, Devender Singh, Akbar Padamsee, John Wilkins, Himmat Shah and Manjit Bawa.^[57] Nowadays-day Indian art is varied as it had been never before. Among the best-known artists of the newer generation include Bose Krishnamachari and Bikash Bhattacharjee. Another prominent Pakistani modernist was Ismail Gulgee, who afterward about 1960 adopted an abstruse idiom that combines aspects of Islamic calligraphy with an abstract expressionist (or gestural abstractionist) sensibility.

Painting and sculpture remained important in the afterwards half of the twentieth century, though in the work of leading artists such as Nalini Malani, Subodh Gupta, Narayanan Ramachandran, Vivan Sundaram, Jitish Kallat, Jamini Roy they often found radical new directions. Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in about gimmicky manner and created her own mode through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear fresh and unusual.

The increase in discourse nigh Indian fine art, in English as well as vernacular Indian languages, changed the way fine art was perceived in the fine art schools. Critical approach became rigorous; critics like Geeta Kapur, R. Siva Kumar,^{[58] [59]} Shivaji K. Panikkar, Ranjit Hoskote, amongst others, contributed to re-thinking contemporary fine art practice in India.

• 

• 

  Pseudorealistic Indian painting. Couple, Kids and Confusion. by Devajyoti Ray.

• 

Fabric history of Indian fine art [edit]

Sculpture [edit]

The showtime known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization (3300–1700 BC), constitute in sites at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa in modern-mean solar day Islamic republic of pakistan. These include the famous small bronze male dancerNataraja. However such figures in statuary and rock are rare and greatly outnumbered past pottery figurines and stone seals, often of animals or deities very finely depicted. Later the collapse of the Indus Valley civilization at that place is piffling tape of sculpture until the Buddhist era, apart from a hoard of copper figures of (somewhat controversially) c. 1500 BCE from Daimabad.^[sixty] Thus the great tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in rock appears to begin relatively belatedly, with the reign of Ashoka from 270 to 232 BCE, and the Pillars of Ashoka he erected around Bharat, carrying his edicts and topped past famous sculptures of animals, mostly lions, of which 6 survive.^[61] Large amounts of figurative sculpture, mostly in relief, survive from Early on Buddhist pilgrimage stupas, higher up all Sanchi; these probably developed out of a tradition using wood.^[62] Indeed, wood continued to be the main sculptural and architectural medium in Kerala throughout all historic periods until recent decades.^[63]

During the 2nd to 1st century BCE in far northern Bharat, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara from what is now southern Afghanistan and northern Islamic republic of pakistan, sculptures became more explicit, representing episodes of the Buddha's life and teachings. Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in man form before this fourth dimension, simply only through some of his symbols. This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Farsi artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, mantle covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus foliage decorations, etc.

The pink sandstone Hindu, Jain and Buddhist sculptures of Mathura from the 1st to 3rd centuries CE reflected both native Indian traditions and the Western influences received through the Greco-Buddhist fine art of Gandhara, and effectively established the basis for subsequent Indian religious sculpture.^[62] The style was developed and diffused through near of Bharat under the Gupta Empire (c. 320-550) which remains a "classical" period for Indian sculpture, covering the earlier Ellora Caves,^[64] though the Elephanta Caves are probably slightly later on.^[65] Later on large scale sculpture remains almost exclusively religious, and generally rather conservative, often reverting to elementary frontal standing poses for deities, though the attendant spirits such as apsaras and yakshi oft accept sensuously curving poses. Carving is often highly detailed, with an intricate backing behind the main figure in loftier relief. The celebrated lost wax bronzes of the Chola dynasty (c. 850–1250) from southward Republic of india, many designed to exist carried in processions, include the iconic form of Shiva as Nataraja,^[66] with the massive granite carvings of Mahabalipuram dating from the previous Pallava dynasty.^[67] The Chola period is also remarkable for its sculptures and bronzes.^[68] Among the existing specimens in the diverse museums of the globe and in the temples of South Bharat may be seen many fine figures of Siva in various forms, Vishnu and his wife Lakshmi, Siva saints and many more than.^[69]

Wall painting [edit]

The tradition and methods of Indian cliff painting gradually evolved throughout many thousands of years - there are multiple locations found with prehistoric fine art. The early caves included overhanging rock decorated with rock-cut art and the utilise of natural caves during the Mesolithic period (6000 BCE). Their use has connected in some areas into historic times.^[70] The Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka are on the edge of the Deccan Plateau where deep erosion has left huge sandstone outcrops. The many caves and grottos found there contain primitive tools and decorative rock paintings that reflect the ancient tradition of human interaction with their landscape, an interaction that continues to this mean solar day.^[71]

The oldest surviving frescoes of the historical menses have been preserved in the Ajanta Caves with Cave 10 having some from the 1st century CE, though the larger and more famous groups are from the 5th century. Despite climatic weather condition that tend to work against the survival of older paintings, in total there are known more than 20 locations in Republic of india with paintings and traces of erstwhile paintings of ancient and early medieval times (upward to the 8th to tenth centuries CE),^[72] although these are but a tiny fraction of what would have once existed. The most significant frescoes of the aboriginal and early on medieval period are found in the Ajanta, Bagh, Ellora, and Sittanavasal caves, the last beingness Jain of the seventh-10th centuries. Although many show evidence of being by artists mainly used to decorating palaces, no early on secular wall-paintings survive.^[73]

The Chola fresco paintings were discovered in 1931 within the circumambulatory passage of the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, and are the first Chola specimens discovered. Researchers accept discovered the technique used in these frescoes. A smooth batter of limestone mixture is applied over the stones, which took ii to three days to set up. Inside that short span, such large paintings were painted with natural organic pigments. During the Nayak menstruation the Chola paintings were painted over. The Chola frescoes lying underneath take an ardent spirit of saivism is expressed in them. They probably synchronised with the completion of the temple by Rajaraja Cholan the Nifty.

Kerala mural painting has well-preserved fresco or landscape or wall painting in temple walls in Pundarikapuram, Ettumanoor and Aymanam and elsewhere.

Miniature painting [edit]

Akbar riding the elephant Hawa'I pursuing another elephant

Although few Indian miniatures survive from before about 1000 CE, and some from the next few centuries, there was probably a considerable tradition. Those that survive are initially illustrations for Buddhist texts, later followed by Jain and Hindu equivalents, and the decline of Buddhist also as the vulnerable support material of the palm-leaf manuscript probably explain the rarity of early examples.^[74]

Mughal painting in miniatures on paper developed very rapidly in the late 16th century from the combined influence of the existing miniature tradition and artists trained in the Persian miniature tradition imported by the Mughal Emperor's courtroom. New ingredients in the manner were much greater realism, especially in portraits, and an interest in animals, plants and other aspects of the concrete world.^[75] Deccan painting adult around the same time in the Deccan sultanates courts to the southward, in some means more vital, if less poised and elegant.^[76]

Miniatures either illustrated books or were single works for muraqqas or albums of painting and Islamic calligraphy. The style gradually spread in the side by side two centuries to influence painting on paper in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts, developing into a number of regional styles often called "sub-Mughal", including Rajput painting, Pahari painting, and finally Visitor painting, a hybrid watercolour manner influenced past European fine art and largely patronized by the people of the British raj. In "pahari" ("mountain") centres like that of Kangra painting the style remained vital and continued to develop into the early decades of the 19th century.^[77] From the mid-19th century Western-style easel paintings became increasingly painted by Indian artists trained in Government fine art schools.

Jewellery [edit]

The Indian subcontinent has the longest continuous legacy of jewellery-making, with a history of over five,000 years.^[78] Using jewellery as a shop of capital remains more mutual in India than in most modern societies, and gilded appears always to accept been strongly preferred for the metal. Republic of india and the surrounding areas were of import sources of high-quality gemstones, and the jewellery of the ruling class is typified by using them lavishly. One of the get-go to first jewellery-making were the people of the Indus Valley Civilization. Early remains are few, as they were not cached with their owners.

Other materials [edit]

Wood was undoubtedly extremely important, merely rarely survives long in the Indian climate. Organic animal materials such as ivory or bone were discouraged past the Dharmic religions, although Buddhist examples be, such as the Begram ivories, many of Indian manufacture, but found in Afghanistan, and some relatively modernistic carved tusks. In Muslim settings they are more common.

Contextual history of Indian fine art [edit]

Temple art [edit]

Obscurity shrouds the period between the turn down of the Harappans and the definite historic period starting with the Mauryas, and in the historical period, the earliest Indian religion to inspire major artistic monuments was Buddhism. Though there may take been earlier structures in wood that accept been transformed into rock structures, in that location are no concrete evidences for these except textual references. Soon after the Buddhists initiated rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mamallapuram and Mughals. It appears to be a abiding in Indian art that the dissimilar religions shared a very similar creative style at any particular period and place, though naturally adapting the iconography to match the organized religion commissioning them.^[79] Probably the aforementioned groups of artists worked for the dissimilar religions regardless of their own affiliations.

Buddhist art first adult during the Gandhara period and Amaravati Periods around the 1st century BCE. Information technology flourished greatly during the Gupta Periods and Pala Periods that contain the Golden Age of India. Although the nigh glorious fine art of these Indian empires was mostly Buddhist in nature, subsequently Hindu Empires like the Pallava, Chola, Hoysala and Vijayanagara Empires developed their own styles of Hindu art as well.

There is no time line that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-continuing temples built with cutting stone every bit they developed in parallel. The building of free-continuing structures began in the 5th century, while stone-cut temples connected to exist excavated until the 12th century. An example of a costless-standing structural temple is the Shore Temple, a function of the Mahabalipuram Globe Heritage Site, with its slender tower, congenital on the shore of the Bay of Bengal with finely carved granite rocks cutting similar bricks and dating from the 8th century.^{[80] [81]}

Folk and tribal art [edit]

Folk and tribal art in Bharat takes on different manifestations through varied media such as pottery, painting, metalwork,^[82] paper-art, weaving and designing of objects such as jewellery and toys. These are non just aesthetic objects simply in fact have an of import significance in people'due south lives and are tied to their beliefs and rituals. The objects tin can range from sculpture, masks (used in rituals and ceremonies), paintings, textiles, baskets, kitchen objects, arms and weapons, and the human body itself (tattoos and piercings). There is a deep symbolic significant that is attached to not only the objects themselves but also the materials and techniques used to produce them.

Often puranic gods and legends are transformed into contemporary forms and familiar images. Fairs, festivals, local heroes (more often than not warriors) and local deities play a vital office in these arts (Example: Nakashi art from Telangana or Cherial Curl Painting).

Folk fine art also includes the visual expressions of the wandering nomads. This is the art of people who are exposed to changing landscapes equally they travel over the valleys and highlands of India. They acquit with them the experiences and memories of different spaces and their art consists of the transient and dynamic pattern of life. The rural, tribal and arts of the nomads found the matrix of folk expression. Examples of folk arts are Warli, Madhubani Art, Manjusha Fine art, Tikuli Art, Gond art and Bhil art etc.

While most tribes and traditional folk creative person communities are assimilated into the familiar kind of civilised life, they still continue to practice their art. Unfortunately though, market place and economic forces accept ensured that the numbers of these artists are dwindling.^{[83] [84]} A lot of endeavor is being fabricated by various NGOs and the Regime of India to preserve and protect these arts and to promote them. Several scholars in India and across the world have studied these arts and some valuable scholarship is available on them.

The folk spirit has a tremendous function to play in the evolution of fine art and in the overall consciousness of ethnic cultures.

Contextual Modernism [edit]

The year 1997 bore witness to two parallel gestures of canon formation. On the i paw, the influential Baroda Grouping, a coalition whose original members included Vivan Sundaram, Ghulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakhar, and Nalini Malani—and which had left its marking on history in the course of the 1981 exhibition "Place for People"—was definitively historicized in 1997 with the publication of Gimmicky Fine art in Baroda, an anthology of essays edited by Sheikh. On the other hand, the art historian R. Siva Kumar'southward benchmark exhibition and related publication, A Contextual Modernism, restored the Santiniketan artists—Rabindranath Tagore, Nandalal Bose, Benode Behari Mukherjee, and Ramkinkar Baij—to their proper place as the originators of an indigenously achieved yet transcultural modernism in the 1930s, well earlier the Progressives composed their manifesto in the belatedly 1940s. Of the Santiniketan artists, Siva Kumar observed that they "reviewed traditional antecedents in relation to the new avenues opened up by cross-cultural contacts. They too saw it as a historical imperative. Cultural insularity, they realized, had to give way to eclecticism and cultural impurity."^[85]

The idea of Contextual Modernism emerged in 1997 from R. Siva Kumar'due south Santiniketan: The Making of a Contextual Modernism as a postcolonial critical tool in the understanding of an alternative modernism in the visual arts of the erstwhile colonies like Republic of india, specifically that of the Santiniketan artists.

Several terms including Paul Gilroy'due south counter culture of modernity and Tani Barlow's Colonial modernity have been used to describe the kind of alternative modernity that emerged in not-European contexts. Professor Gall argues that 'Contextual Modernism' is a more suited term because "the colonial in colonial modernity does not adjust the refusal of many in colonized situations to internalize inferiority. Santiniketan's artist teachers' refusal of subordination incorporated a counter vision of modernity, which sought to right the racial and cultural essentialism that drove and characterized royal Western modernity and modernism. Those European modernities, projected through a triumphant British colonial power, provoked nationalist responses, every bit problematic when they incorporated similar essentialisms."^[86]

Co-ordinate to R. Siva Kumar "The Santiniketan artists were i of the starting time who consciously challenged this idea of modernism by opting out of both internationalist modernism and historicist indigenousness and tried to create a context sensitive modernism."^[87] He had been studying the work of the Santiniketan masters and thinking about their approach to art since the early 80s. The practice of subsuming Nandalal Bose, Rabindranath Tagore, Ram Kinker Baij and Benode Behari Mukherjee under the Bengal Schoolhouse of Art was, co-ordinate to Siva Kumar, misleading. This happened because early writers were guided by genealogies of apprenticeship rather than their styles, worldviews, and perspectives on art practice.^[87]

Contextual Modernism in the recent past has found its usage in other related fields of studies, specially in Architecture.^[88]

Art museums of India [edit]

Major cities [edit]

• National Museum, New Delhi
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya (CSMVS), Mumbai (formerly Prince of Wales Museum of Western India)
• Indian Museum, Kolkata
• Salar Jung Museum, Hyderabad
• Regime Museum (Bangalore)
• Authorities Museum, Chennai
• Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh

Archaeological museums [edit]

• AP State Archaeology Museum, Hyderabad
• Archaeological Museum, Thrissur
• City Museum, Hyderabad
• Government Museum, Mathura
• Authorities Museum, Tiruchirappalli
• Hill Palace, Tripunithura, Ernakulam
• Odisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar
• Patna Museum
• Pazhassi Raja Archaeological Museum, Kozhikode
• Sanghol Museum
• Sarnath Museum
• Land Archaeological Gallery, Kolkata
• Victoria Jubilee Museum, Vijayawada

Modernistic fine art museums [edit]

• National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi - established 1954.
• National Gallery of Mod Art, Bombay - established 1996.
• National Gallery of Mod Art, Bangalore - inaugurated 2009.
• Kolkata Museum of Mod Art - foundation laid in 2013.

Other museums [edit]

• Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur
• Allahabad Museum
• Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, Kolkata
• Baroda Museum & Picture Gallery
• Goa State Museum, Panaji
• Napier Museum, Thiruvananthapuram
• National Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum, New Delhi
• Sanskriti Museums, Delhi
• Watson Museum, Rajkot
• Srimanthi Bai Memorial Government Museum, Mangalore

See also [edit]

• Indian painting
• Government Higher of Fine Arts, Chennai
• Indian architecture
  • Indian vernacular compages
• Crafts of India
• Rasa (art)

Notes [edit]

1. ^ Jagadish Gupta (1996). Pre-historic Indian Painting. North Cardinal Zone Cultural Centre.
2. ^ Shiv Kumar Tiwari (1 Jan 2000s). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. pp. viii–. ISBN978-81-7625-086-3.
3. ^ Cockburn, John (1899). "Fine art. V.—Cave Drawings in the Kaimūr Range, Northward-West Provinces". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great United kingdom & Ireland. New Series. 31 (1): 89–97. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00026113.
4. ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. p. 220. ISBN9788170171935.
5. ^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN9788176250863.
6. ^ Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (PDF). UNESCO. 2003. p. 16.
7. ^ Mithen, Steven (2011). After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000 - 5000 BC. Orion. p. 524. ISBN9781780222592.
8. ^ Javid, Ali; Jāvīd, ʻAlī; Javeed, Tabassum (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora Publishing. p. nineteen. ISBN9780875864846.
9. ^ Pathak, Dr. Meenakshi Dubey. "Indian Rock Art - Prehistoric Paintings of the Pachmarhi Hills". Bradshaw Foundation. Retrieved vii Nov 2014.
10. ^ Marshall, Sir John. Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Culture, 3 vols, London: Arthur Probsthain, 1931
11. ^ Keay, John, India, a History. New York: Grove Press, 2000.
12. ^ Harle, xv-19
13. ^ Harle, 19-20
14. ^ ^{a b} Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". Due east and Westward. 39 (1/4): 111–143, especially 112–114, 115, 125. JSTOR 29756891.
15. ^ Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". Due east and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29756891.
16. ^ Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996). The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. ix-x. ISBN978-81-215-0565-9.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 248. ISBN978-0-470-75196-ane.
18. ^ Harle, 22-28
19. ^ Harle, 22-26
20. ^ State Keepsake Archived May 11, 2012, at the Wayback Automobile, Know Republic of india republic of india.gov.in
21. ^ Harle, 39-42
22. ^ Dated 100 BCE in Fig.88 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early on Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 368, Fig. 88. ISBN9789004155374.
23. ^ ^{a b c d e f} Dalal, Roshen (2010). The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths. Penguin Books India. pp. 397–398. ISBN978-0-14-341517-6.
24. ^ Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Aboriginal and Early Medieval India. New Delhi: Pearson Teaching. p. 430. ISBN978-81-317-1120-0.
25. ^ "yaksha". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 15 July 2007.
26. ^ Sharma, Ramesh Chandra (1994). The Splendour of Mathurā Art and Museum. D.Thou. Printworld. p. 76. ISBN978-81-246-0015-3.
27. ^ ^{a b c d e} Boardman, John (1993). The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton University Press. p. 112. ISBN0691036802.
28. ^ Fig. 85 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early on Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. Fig.85, p.365. ISBN9789004155374.
29. ^ "The folk art typifies an older plastic tradition in clay and wood which was now put in rock, every bit seen in the massive Yaksha statuary which are also of exceptional value as models of subsequent divine images and human figures." in Agrawala, Vasudeva Sharana (1965). Indian Art: A history of Indian art from the primeval times up to the tertiary century A. D. Prithivi Prakashan. p. 84.
30. ^ "With respect to big-scale iconic statuary carved in the circular (...) the region of Mathura not but rivaled other areas simply surpassed them in overall quality and quantity throughout the second and early on first century BCE." in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 24. ISBN9789004155374.
31. ^ Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early on Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. pp. 23–25. ISBN9789004155374.
32. ^ Harle, 105-117, 26-47
33. ^ Harle, 59-lxx
34. ^ Harle, 105-117, 71-84 on Gandhara
35. ^ Harle, 68-70 (simply run across p. 253 for another exception)
36. ^ ^{a b c} Stokstad, Marilyn (2018). Art History. United States: Pearson Education. pp. 306–310. ISBN9780134475882.
37. ^ Department of Asian Art (2000). "Shunga Dynasty (ca. Second - Showtime Century B.C.)". Retrieved November 26, 2018.
38. ^ "Indian subcontinent". Oxford Art Online. 2003. Retrieved Dec 3, 2018.
39. ^ Sarkar (2006). Hari smriti. New Delhi : Kaveri Books. p. 73. ISBN8174790756.
40. ^ ^{a b} Sarma, I.Chiliad (2001). Sri Subrahmanya Smrti. New Delhi : Sundeep Prakashan. pp. 283–290. ISBN8175741023.
41. ^ Nārāyaṇa Rāya, Udaya (2006). Fine art, archaeology, and cultural history of Bharat. Delhi : B.R. Pub. Corp. ISBN8176464929.
42. ^ Xinru Liu, The Silk Route in Globe History, New York: Oxford University Press, 2010, 42.
43. ^ Lolita Nehru, Origins of the Gandharan Style, p. 63.
44. ^ Chakravarti, Ranabir (2016-01-xi), "Kushan Empire", The Encyclopedia of Empire, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 1–half dozen, doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe147, ISBN9781118455074
45. ^ Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Nowadays. Princeton University Press. p. forty. ISBN978-0-691-08953-nine.
46. ^ Dhammika, Ven. S. (1994). "The Edicts of King Ashoka (an English rendering)". DharmaNet International. Archived from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved 22 November 2014. ... Love-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, ...
47. ^ "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO. 1987. Retrieved 22 November 2014.
48. ^ "Khajuraho Group of Monuments". UNESCO Globe Heritage Listing. UNESCO. 1986. Retrieved eight November 2014.
49. ^ Panikkar, M. M. (1955). "Presidential Address". Indian History Congress. Vol. 18th Session. Calcutta.
50. ^ Dehejia, Vidya (1997). Representing the Trunk: Gender Issues in Indian Art. Delhi: Kali for Women (Women Unlimited). ISBN978-81-85107-32-v.
51. ^ Seyller, John (1987). "Scribal Notes on Mughal Manuscript Illustrations". Artibus Asiae. 48 (3/4): 247–277. doi:10.2307/3249873. JSTOR 3249873.
52. ^ Fazl, Abu'l (1927). Ain-i Akbari. Translated by H Blochmann. Asiatic Society of Bengal.
53. ^ "Daulat". Encyclopædia Britannica . Retrieved xiii Nov 2014.
54. ^ George Michell; Catherine Lampert; Tristram Kingdom of the netherlands (1982). In the Image of Human being: The Indian Perception of the Universe Through 2000 Years of Painting and Sculpture. Tall Fine Arts Collection. ISBN978-0-933516-52-half-dozen.
55. ^ Hachette Bharat (25 October 2013). Indiapedia: The All-India Factfinder. Hachette India. pp. 130–. ISBN978-93-5009-766-3.
56. ^ "For art'southward sake". The Hindu. February 12, 2009. Archived from the original on May 25, 2011. Retrieved Nov 23, 2014.
57. ^ "Showcase – Artists Collectives". National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. 2012-11-09. Retrieved 2014-eleven-23 .
58. ^ "National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi".
59. ^ "Rabindranath Tagore: The Concluding Harvest".
60. ^ Harle, 17–20
61. ^ Harle, 22–24
62. ^ ^{a b} Harle, 26–38
63. ^ Harle, 342-350
64. ^ Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the menses
65. ^ Harle, 124
66. ^ Harle, 301-310, 325-327
67. ^ Harle, 276–284
68. ^ Chopra. et al., p. 186.
69. ^ Tri. [Title needed]. p. 479.
70. ^ "Prehistoric Stone Art". art-and-archaeology.com. Retrieved 2006-x-17 .
71. ^ "Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka". Retrieved 2006-12-20 .
72. ^ "Ancient and medieval Indian cavern paintings - Internet encyclopedia". Wondermondo. 2010-06-x. Retrieved 2010-06-04 .
73. ^ Harle, 355
74. ^ Harle, 361-366
75. ^ Harle, 372-382
76. ^ Harle, 400-406
77. ^ Harle, 407-420
78. ^ Untracht, Oppi. Traditional Jewelry of Bharat. New York: Abrams, 1997 ISBN 0-8109-3886-3. p15.
79. ^ Harle, 59
80. ^ Thapar, Binda (2004). Introduction to Indian Architecture. Singapore: Periplus Editions. pp. 36–37, 51. ISBN978-0-7946-0011-ii.
81. ^ "Compages of the Indian Subcontinent". Retrieved 2006-12-21 .
82. ^ dhokra fine art Archived 2010-12-29 at the Wayback Machine
83. ^ GVSS, Gramin Vikas Seva Sanshtha (12 June 2011). "Evaluation Study of Tribal/Folk Arts and Culture in West Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh and Bihar" (PDF). Planning Commission. Socio-Economic Enquiry (SER) Segmentation, Planning Committee, Govt. of Republic of india New Delhi. p. 53. Retrieved two March 2015. ... globalization has triggered the emergence of a constructed macro-civilisation...is gaining popularity day by solar day and silently engineering the gradual attrition of tribal/folk art and civilization.
84. ^ "Refuse of tribal and folk arts lamented". Deccan Herald. Gudibanda, Karnataka, India. 3 July 2008. Archived from the original on two March 2015. Retrieved two March 2015. In the moving ridge of electronic media, our ... ancient civilization and tribal fine art have been declining, ..., said folklore researcher J Srinivasaiah.
85. ^ Hapgood, Susan; Hoskote, Ranjit (2015). "Abby Grayness And Indian Modernism" (PDF). Greyness Art Gallery. New York: New York University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2016. Retrieved 12 March 2021.
86. ^ Gall, David. "Overcoming Polarized Modernities: Counter-Modern Art Education: Santiniketan1Overcoming Polarized Modernities: Counter-Modern Art Education: Santiniketan,The Legacy of a Poet's School" (PDF). Hawaii University International Conferences . Retrieved 12 March 2021.
87. ^ ^{a b} "Humanities underground » All the Shared Experiences of the Lived Earth 2".
88. ^ ""Contextual modernism" – is information technology possible? Steps to improved housing strategy". 2011.

References [edit]

• Harle, J.C., The Art and Compages of the Indian Subcontinent, second edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, ISBN 0300062176
• Harsha V. Dehejia, The Advaita of Fine art (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2000, ISBN 81-208-1389-8), p. 97
• Kapila Vatsyayan, Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts (New Delhi: Sangeet Natak Akademi, 1977), p. 8
• Mitter, Partha. Indian Fine art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-xix-284221-8)

Farther reading [edit]

• Gupta, S. P., & Asthana, S. P. (2007). Elements of Indian art: Including temple compages, iconography & iconometry. New Delhi: Indraprastha Museum of Art and Archaeology.
• Gupta, South. P., & Shastri Indo-Canadian Constitute. (2011). The roots of Indian art: A detailed study of the formative period of Indian art and architecture, third and second centuries B.C., Mauryan and late Mauryan. Delhi: B.R. Publishing Corporation.
• Abanindranath Tagore (1914). Some Notes on Indian Artistic Anatomy. Indian Gild of Oriental Art, Calcutta. OL 6213535M.
• Kossak, Steven (1997). Indian courtroom painting, 16th-19th century. . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN978-0870997839. (see alphabetize: pages 148-152)
• Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian fine art from the Kronos collections . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN978-0870993749. fully online
• Smith, Vincent A. (1930). A History Of Fine Art In India And Ceylon. The Clarendon Press, Oxford.
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1985). Republic of india: art and culture, 1300-1900 . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN9780944142134. fully online

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_art

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